BELKIN WIRELESS ROUTER

BELKIN WIRELESS ROUTER
IP Address:-The "IP address" is the Internal IP address of the Router. To access the advanced setup interface, type this IP address into the address bar of your browser. This address can be changed if needed. To Change the IP address, type in the new IP address and click "Apply Changes". The IP address you choose should be a non-routable IP. Examples of a non-routable IP are:
192.168.x.z (where x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)10.x.x.z (where x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)172.y.x.z (where y is anything from 16 to 31, x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)

Subnet MaskADVANCED FEATURE:-There is no need to change the subnet mask. It is possible to change the subnet mask if necessary. Only make changes to the Subnet Mask if you specifically have a reason to do so.

DNSDNS is an acronym for Domain Name Server:. A Domain Name Server is a server located on the Internet that translates URL's (Universal Resource Links) like www.belkin.com to IP addresses. Many ISP's do not require you to enter this information into the Router. The "Automatic from ISP" checkbox should be checked if your ISP did not give you a specific DNS address. If you are using a Static IP connection type, then you may need to enter a specific DNS address and secondary DNS address for your connection to work properly. If your connection type is Dynamic or PPPoE, it is likely that you do not have to enter a DNS address. To enter the DNS address settings, uncheck the "Automatic from ISP" checkbox and enter your DNS entries in the spaces provided. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings.

DDNSDDNS (Dynamic DNS) is a service which allows you to associate a Domain Name with this Router, even though your Internet IP address is not fixed. This Router includes a DDNS client, which will notify supported DDNS Service providers of your current Internet IP address. The DDNS service will then update the DNS records (see DNS explanation above) with your current IP address. The end result is that other Internet users can access your Virtual Servers using a Domain Name instead of an IP address. To use DDNS, you must first create an account with a supported DDNS service and obtain a Domain Name from them, then configure this Router. If your DDNS Service provides software to advise the DDNS server of your current IP address, you should NOT use this software. This Router will perform that task.

DHCP:-The DHCP server function makes setting up a network very easy by assigning IP addresses to each computer on the network. The DHCP Server can be turned off if necessary. Turning off the DHCP server will require you to manually set a Static IP address in each computer on your network. The IP pool is the range of IP addresses set aside for dynamic assignment to the computers on your network. The default is 2-100 (99 computers) if you want to change this number, you can by entering a new starting and ending IP address and clicking on "Apply Changes".

Local Domain Name:-You can set a local domain name (network name) for your network. There is no need to change this setting unless you have a specific advanced need to do so. You can name the network anything you want such as "MY NETWORK".

Dynamic IPA:- dynamic connection type is the most common connection type found with cable modems. Setting the connection type to dynamic in many cases is enough to complete the connection to your ISP. Some dynamic connection types may require a Host Name. You can enter your Host Name in the space provided if you were assigned one. Your Host Name is assigned by your ISP. Some dynamic connections may require that you clone the MAC address of the PC that was originally connected to the modem. To do so, click on the "Change WAN MAC address" link in the screen. The Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.

Static IP:-A Static IP address connection type is less common than other connection types. If your ISP uses static IP addressing, you will need your IP address, Subnet Mask, and ISP gateway address. This information is available from your ISP or on the paperwork that your ISP left with you. Type in your information then click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.If your ISP assigns you more than one static IP address, your Router is capable of handling up to five static WAN IP addresses. Select "My ISP provides more than one static IP address" and enter your additional addresses.

PPPoE:-Most DSL providers use PPPoE as the connection type. If you use a DSL modem to connect to the Internet, your ISP may use PPPoE to log you into the service. If you have an Internet connection in your home or small office that doesn't require a modem, you may also use PPPoE. Your connection type is PPPoE if:1) Your ISP gave you a user name and password which is required to connect to the Internet2) Your ISP gave you software such as WinPOET, Enternet300 that you use to connect to the Internet3) You have to double-click on a desktop Icon other than your browser to get on the InternetTo set the Router to use PPPoE, type in your User Name and Password in the spaces provided. If you do not have a Service Name or do not know it, leave the Service Name field blank. After you have typed in your information, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly. For more details on configuring your Router to use PPPoE, see the user manual.

Telstra Big Pond:-Your user name and password are provided to you by Telstra BigPond. Enter this information below. Choosing your state will automatically fill in your Login Server IP address. If your Login Server address is different than one provided here, you may manually enter the Login Server IP address. When you have entered your information, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.

MTU Setting:-The MTU setting should never be changed unless your ISP gives you a specific MTU setting. Making changes to the MTU setting can cause problems with your Internet connection including disconnection from the Internet, slow Internet access and problems with Internet applications working properly.
Disconnect after X...The Disconnect feature is used to automatically disconnect the router from your ISP when there is no activity for a specified period of time. For instance, placing a checkmark next to this option and entering 5 into the minute field will cause the router to disconnect from the Internet after 5 minutes of no Internet activity. This option should be used if you pay for your Internet service by the minute.

MAC Address:-MAC is an acronym for Media Access Controller. All network components including cards, adapters, and routers, have a unique "serial number" called a MAC address. Your ISP may record the MAC address of your computer's adapter and only let that particular computer connect to the Internet service. When you install the router, the Router's own MAC address will be "seen" by the ISP and may cause the connection not to work. Belkin has provided the ability to clone (copy) the MAC address of the computer into the router. This MAC address, in turn, will be seen by the ISP's system as the original MAC address and will allow the connection to work. If you are not sure if your ISP needs to see the original MAC address, simply clone the MAC address of the computer that was originally connected to the modem. Cloning the address will not cause any problems with your network. To Clone your MAC address, make sure that you are using the computer which was ORIGINALLY CONNECTED to your modem before the Router was installed. Click the "Clone MAC address" button. Click "Apply Changes". Your MAC address is now cloned to the router.

Channel and SSID:-To change the channel of operation of the Router, select the desired channel from the drop-down menu. Click "Apply Changes" to save the setting. You can also change the SSID. The SSID is the equivalent to the wireless network's name. You can make the SSID anything you want to. If there are other wireless networks in your area, you should give your wireless network a unique name. The default is belkin54g. To change the SSID, click inside of the SSID box and type in a new name. Click "Apply Changes" to make the change.

Broadcast SSID:-It is possible to make your wireless network nearly invisible. By turning off the broadcast of the SSID, your network will not appear in a site survey. Site Survey is a feature of many wireless network adapters on the market today. It will scan the "air" for any available network and allow the computer to select the network from the site survey. Turning off the broadcast of the SSID will help increase security.
Use as Access PointWhen using the Router as an Access Point, you must specify an IP address for the Access Point. This IP address must fall into the same range as the network that you will be connecting it to. To access the advanced setup interface of the Router again, type in the IP address in the web browser and login.

Protected Mode:- In most situations, best performance (throughput) is achieved with Protected Mode OFF. If you are operating in an environment with HEAVY 802.11b traffic or interference, best performance may be achieved with Protected Mode ON.

Turbo Mode:-Turbo mode incorporates wireless network speed enhancements.Belkin's router supports 2 Turbo modes, 125 G PLUS mode & Frame Bursting mode.Selecting "125 G PLUS mode" will result in all devices running in 125 G PLUS mode if all devices are capable of 125 G PLUS mode speeds. If any non-125 G PLUS mode device connects or associates with the network, the router will automatically shift the entire network back to Frame Bursting Mode.Selecting "Frame Bursting" will result in all devices capable of Frame Bursting to function in frame bursting mode, and all clients not capable to operate in normal 802.11g modes. Frame bursting mode supports both Frame Bursting enabled devices and non Frame Bursting enabled devices simultaneously. Frame bursting mode is based on the unreleased 802.11e specification.Selecting "Off" will disable all turbo modes.

802.11e QoSQuality of Service (QoS):-refers to the capability of a network to provide better service to selected network traffic. The primary goal of QoS is to provide priority including dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter and latency (required by some real-time and interactive traffic), and improved loss characteristics. Also important is making sure that providing priority for one or more flows does not make other flows fail. QoS technologies provide the elemental building blocks that will be used for future business applications in campus, WAN, and service provider networks.

Virtual Servers:-This function will allow you to route external (Internet) calls for services such as a web server (port 80), FTP server (Port 21), or other applications through your Router to your internal network. Since your internal computers are protected by a firewall, machines from the Internet cannot get to them because they cannot be 'seen'. If you need to configure the Virtual Server function for a specific application, a list of common applications has been provided. If your application is not listed, you will need to contact the application vendor to find out which port settings you need. To select from the provided list, select your application from the drop-down list. Select the row that you want to copy the settings to from the drop-down list next to "to row", then click "Enter". The settings will be transferred to the row you specified. Click "Apply Changes" to save the setting for that application. To manually enter settings, enter the IP address in the space provided for the internal (server) machine, the port(s) required to pass (use a comma between multiple ports), select the port type (TCP or UDP) and click "Apply Changes". You can only pass one port per internal IP address. Opening ports in your firewall can pose a security risk. You can enable and disable settings very quickly. It is recommended that you disable the settings when you are not using a specific application.

MAC Address Filtering:-The MAC Address Filter is a powerful security feature that allows you to specify which computers are allowed on the network. Any computer attempting to access the network that is not specified in the filter list will be denied access. When you enable this feature, you must enter the MAC address of each client on your network to allow network access to each. The "Block" feature lets you turn on and off access to the network easily for any computer without having to add and remove the computer's MAC address from the list. To enable this feature, select "Enable MAC Address Filtering". Next, enter the MAC address of each computer on your network by clicking "Add" and entering the MAC address in the space provided. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings. To delete a MAC address from the list, simply click "Delete" next to the MAC address you wish to delete. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings. Note: you will not be able to delete the MAC address of the computer you are using to access the Router's administrative functions. (The computer you are using now).
Client IP filtersThe Router can be configured to restrict access to the Internet, e-mail or other network services at specific days and times. Restriction can be set for a single computer, a range of computers, or multiple computers. To restrict Internet access to a single computer for example, enter the IP address of the computer you wish to restrict access to in the IP fields. Next enter 80 and 80 in the Port fields. Select TCP. Select Block. You can also select Always to block access all of the time. Select the day to start on top, the time to start on top, the day to end on the bottom and the time to stop on the bottom. Click "Apply Changes". The computer at the IP address you specified will now be blocked from Internet access at the times you specified. Note: be sure you have selected the correct time zone under Utilities> System Settings> Time Zone.

DMZ:-The DMZ feature allows you to specify one computer on your network to be placed outside of the NAT firewall. This may be necessary if the NAT feature is causing problems with an application such as a game or video conferencing application. Use this feature on a temporary basis. The computer in the DMZ is not protected from hacker attacks. To put a computer in the DMZ, enter the last digits of its IP address in the IP field and select "Enable". Click "Apply Changes" for the change to take effect. If you are using multiple static WAN IP addresses, it is possible to select which WAN IP address the DMZ host will be directed to. Type in the WAN IP address you wish the DMZ host to direct to, enter the last two digits of the IP address of the DMZ host computer, select "Enable" and Click "Apply Changes".

Block ICMP:- PingComputer hackers use what is known as "Pinging" to find potential victims on the Internet. By pinging a specific IP address and receiving a response from the IP address, a hacker can determine that something of interest might be there. The Router can be set up so it will not respond to an ICMP Ping from the outside. This heightens the level of security of your Router. To turn off the ping response, select "Block ICMP Ping" and click "Apply Changes". The router will not respond to an ICMP ping.

Administrator Password:-The Router ships with NO password entered. If you wish to add a password for more security, you can set a password here. Keep your password in a safe place, as you will need this password if you need to log into the router in the future. It is also recommended that you set a password if you plan to use the Remote management feature of this Router. The login timeout option allows you to set the period of time that you can be logged into the Router's advanced setup interface. The timer starts when there has been no activity. For example, you have made some changes in the advanced setup interface, then left your computer alone without clicking "Logout". Assuming the timeout is set to 10 minutes, then 10 minutes after you leave, the login session will expire. You will have to login to the router again to make any more changes. The login timeout option is for security purposes and the default is set to 10 minutes. As a note, only one computer can be logged into the Router's advanced setup interface at one time.

Time and Time Zone:-The Router keeps time by connecting to a Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) server. This allows the Router to synchronize the system clock to the global Internet. The synchronized clock in the Router is used to record the security log and control client filtering. Select the time zone that you reside in. If you reside in an area that observes Daylight Saving, then place a checkmark in the box next to "Enable Daylight Saving". The system clock may not update immediately. Allow at least 15 minutes for the router to contact the time servers on the Internet and get a response. You cannot set the clock yourself.
Remote ManagementBefore you enable this function,MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SET THE ADMINISTRATOR PASSWORD. Remote management allows you to make changes to your Router's settings from anywhere on the Internet. There are two methods of remotely managing the router. The first method is to allow access to the router from anywhere on the Internet by selecting "Any IP address can remotely manage the router". By typing in your WAN IP address from any computer on the Internet, you will be presented with a login screen where you need to type in the password of your router. The Second method is to allow a specific IP address only to remotely manage the router. This is more secure, but less convenient. To use this method, enter the IP address you know you will be accessing the Router from in the space provided and select "Only this IP address can remotely manage the Router". Before you enable this function, it is STRONGLY RECOMMENDED that you set your administrator password. Leaving the password empty will potentially open your router to intrusion.

NAT EnablingBefore you enable this function, MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SET THE ADMINISTRATOR PASSWORD. Network Address Translation (NAT) is the method by which the router shares the single IP address assigned by your ISP with the computers on your network. Advanced users should only use this function. This function should only be used if your ISP assigns you multiple IP addresses or you need NAT disabled for an advanced system configuration. If you have a single IP address and you turn NAT off, the computers on your network will not be able to access the Internet. Other problems may also occur. Turning off NAT will disable your firewall functions.

UPnPUPnP (Universal Plug-and-Play):-is a technology that offers seamless operation of voice messaging, video messaging, games, and other applications that are UPnP compliant. Some applications require the Router's firewall to be configured in a specific way to operate properly. This usually requires opening TCP and UDP ports and in some instances setting trigger ports. An application that is UPnP compliant has the ability to communicate with the Router, basically "telling" the Router which way it needs the firewall configured. The Router ships with the UPnP feature disabled. If you are using any applications that are UPnP compliant, and wish to take advantage of the UPnP features, you can enable the UPnP feature. Simply select "Enable" in the "UPnP Enabling" section of the Utilities page. Click "Apply Changes" to save the change.
Automatic Firmware Update NotificationThe Router has the capability built-in to automatically check for a new version of firmware and alert you that the new firmware is available. When you log into the Router advanced interface, the router will perform a check to see if new firmware is available. If new firmware is available, you will be notified. You can choose to download the new version or ignore it. The router ships with this feature disabled. If you want to enable it, select "Enable" and click "Apply Changes".

Wireless Security:-Using Encryption can help secure your wireless network. Only one type of security may be selected at a time. Therefore the customer must select a mode that is supported on all network devices on the wireless network. This Belkin product has 4 possible Security settings:
1. Disabled. No encryption is enabled in this mode. Open networks where all users are welcome sometimes prefer to not enable encryption.
2. WPA/WPA2-Personal(PSK). WPA means Wireless Protected Access. WPA/WPA2-Personal PSK is a recent standards-based security technique where each packet of information is encrypted with a different code, or key. Since the key is constantly changing, WPA/WPA2 is very secure. The encryption key is generated automatically from a string of characters called the Pass Phrase or the Pre-shared Key (PSK). Obviously the biggest security risk in WPA is if someone finds out your Pass Phrase.
o Authentication - Select the method supported by all clients. WPA-PSK uses TKIP or AES encryption. WPA2-PSK uses AES encryption. WPA-PSK + WPA2-PSK allows clients to use either WPA-PSK (with TKIP encryption) or WPA2-PSK (with AES encryption).
o Encryption Technique - If using WPA-PSK, select the desired Encryption method - TKIP or AES. WPA2-PSK always uses AES encryption. WPA-PSK + WPA2-PSK uses TKIP + AES.
o Pre-shared Key (PSK) - All clients must use the same PSK. The PSK can be any word or phrase from 8 up to 63 characters. Watch out for upper and lower case differences ("n" is different than "N".) Remember, the easiest way to break your security is for someone to guess your PSK.
3. 128-bit WEP. Until recently, 128-bit WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) was the standard for wireless encryption. If not all of your wireless devices support WPA, 128bit WEP still offers a very good security option. It will require you to enter hex digits (0~9, A~F), or else generate the keys by using the PassPhrase/Generate option.
4. 64-bit WEP. This is similar to 128-bit WEP, but not as powerful. Belkin only recommends 64-bit mode on networks where some devices do not support either WPA or 128-bit WEP.

CORRUPTED OR MISSING \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG

If you got this error:
This error is due to file missing or corrupt\WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SYSTEM or \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SOFTWARE

1. Insert and boot from your Windows XP CD.
   At the first R=Repair option, press the R key
2. Press the number that corresponds to the correct location for the installation of Windows you want to repair.Typically this will be #1
3. Enter in the administrator password when requested
   cd \windows\system32\config
4. Depending on which section was corrupted:ren software software.bad or ren system system.bad
5. Depending on which section was corruptedcopy \windows\repair\systemcopy \windows\repair\software
6. Take out the CD ROM and type exit

POWER SUPPLY UNIT-SMPS (SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY)

A power supply unit (PSU) is the component that supplies power to the other components in a computer. More specifically, a power supply unit is typically designed to convert general-purpose alternating current (AC) electric power from the mains (100-127V in North America, parts of South America, Japan, and Taiwan; 220-240V in most of the rest of the world) to usable low-voltage DC power for the internal components of the computer. Some power supplies have a switch to change between 230 V and 115 V. Other models have automatic sensors that switch input voltage automatically, or are able to accept any voltage between those limits.
The most common computer power supplies are built to conform to the ATX form factor. This enables different power supplies to be interchangeable with different components inside the computer. ATX power supplies also are designed to turn on and off using a signal from the motherboard, and provide support for modern functions such as the standby mode available in many computers. The most recent specification of the ATX standard PSU as of mid-2008 is version 2.31.
Note that some manufacturers, most notably Compaq and Dell, have produced power supplies using the same connectors as ATX but with different voltages on different pins; mismatching such PSUs and motherboards can result in damage to either or both

Connectors

Typically, power supplies have the following connectors:
PC Main power connector (usually called P1): Is the connector that goes to the motherboard to provide it with power. The connector has 20 or 24 pins. One of the pins belongs to the PS-ON wire (it is usually green). This connector is the largest of all the connectors. In older AT power supplies, this connector was split in two: P8 and P9. A power supply with a 24-pin connector can be used on a motherboard with a 20-pin connector. In cases where the motherboard has a 24-pin connector, some power supplies come with two connectors (one with 20-pin and other with 4-pin) which can be used together to form the 24-pin connector.
ATX12V 4-pin power connector (also called the P4 power connector). A second connector that goes to the motherboard (in addition to the main 24-pin connector) to supply dedicated power for the processor. For high-end motherboards and processors, more power is required, therefore EPS12V has an 8 pin connector.
4-pin Peripheral power connectors (usually called Molex for its manufacturer): These are the other, smaller connectors that go to the various disk drives of the computer. Most of them have four wires: two black, one red, and one yellow. Unlike the standard mains electrical wire color-coding, each black wire is a ground, the red wire is +5 V, and the yellow wire is +12 V. In some cases these are also used to provide additional power to PCI cards such as FireWire 800 cards.
4-pin Berg power connectors (usually called Mini-connector or "mini-Molex"): This is one of the smallest connectors that supplies the floppy drive with power. In some cases, it can be used as an auxiliary connector for AGP video cards. Its cable configuration is similar to the Peripheral connector.
Auxiliary power connectors: There are several types of auxiliary connectors designed to provide additional power if it is needed.
Serial ATA power connectors: a 15-pin connector for components which use SATA power plugs. This connector supplies power at three different voltages: +3.3, +5, and +12 volts.
6-pin Most modern computer power supplies include 6-pin connectors which are generally used for PCI Express graphics cards, but a newly introduced 8-pin connector should be seen on the latest model power supplies. Each PCI Express 6-pin connector can output a maximum of 75 W.
6+2 pin For the purpose of backwards compatibility, some connectors designed for use with PCI Express graphics cards feature this kind of pin configuration. It allows either a 6-pin card or an 8-pin card to be connected by using two separate connection modules wired into the same sheath: one with 6 pins and another with 2 pins.
A C14 IEC connector with an appropriate C13 cord is used to attach the power supply to the local power grid.

AT vs. ATX

A typical installation of an ATX form factor computer power supply.
There are two basic differences between AT and ATX power supplies: The connectors that provide power to the motherboard, and the soft switch. On older AT power supplies, the Power-on switch wire from the front of the computer is connected directly to the power supply.
On newer ATX power supplies, the power switch on the front of the computer goes to the motherboard over a connector labeled something like; PS ON, Power SW, SW Power, etc. This allows other hardware and/or software to turn the system on and off.
The motherboard controls the power supply through pin #14 of the 20 pin connector or #16 of the 24 pin connector on the motherboard. This pin carries 5V when the power supply is in standby. It can be grounded to turn the power supply on without having to turn on the rest of the components. This is useful for testing or to use the computer ATX power supply for other purposes.
AT stands for Advanced Technology when ATX means Advanced Technology eXtended.

Wiring diagramsAT power connector (Used on older AT style mainboards)

24-pin ATX12V 2.x power supply connector(20-pin omits the last 4: 11, 12, 23 and 24)

REGISTRY EDITING HAS BEEN DISABLED BY YOUR ADMINISTRATOR

Error "Registry editing has been disabled by your administrator" when you open the Registry Editor in Windows Vista

When you attempt to start the Registry Editor (regedit.exe) in your Windows Vista system, you will get the following message:
Registry editing has been disabled by your administrator

SOLUTION
Method 1
Using Group Policy Editor
If you are using an edition of Windows Vista (Windows Vista Business, Enterprise and Ultimate editions) which includes the Group Policy Editor, follow these steps:
1.Click Start, type gpedit.msc in the Search box, and press ENTER
2.Go to the following branch: User Configuration -> Administrative Templates -> System
3.Double-click Prevent access to registry editing tools
4.Set it as Not Configured (If it's already set to Not Configured, set it to Enabled and click Apply. Then repeat the steps and revert the setting back to Not Configured. This removes the registry based policy if set already.)
Method 2
This method should work in all editions of Windows Vista.
1.Download reg_enable.vbs attached file and save it to Desktop
2.Click Start
3.Click All Programs
4.Click Accessories
5.Right-click Command Prompt
6. Then click Run as administrator. If you are prompted for an administrator password or for a confirmation, type the password, or click Allow.
7.Switch to your Desktop directory by typing the following command, and then pressing ENTER: cd /d %userprofile%\desktop
Then, type the following command and press ENTER
wscript.exe reg_enable.vbs
8.Type EXIT to close the Command Prompt window.
The DisableRegistryTools policy should have been removed by now.Now you can able to launch Regedit.exe now.

BIOS

What is BIOS?
BIOS or Basic Input/Output System is the first program accessed by the processor during start up to ensure that all the other basic programs, hard drives, ports, peripherals and the central processing unit are in good working condition. BIOS are different from the computer's operating system. The operating system resides in the hard drive and provides the user interface that can be seen on the screen after start up. The BIOS program, on the other hand, can be found right in a flash memory chip or ROM located in the motherboard. It is the basic requirement for booting a computer.
BIOS Functions
BIOS have several functions in a computer but its most important task is to load the operating system. BIOS provide the microprocessor its first instructions upon activating the computer. The instructions of the BIOS to the microprocessor during start up are the following: power on self test which tests the operating status of all the hardware in the computer, activation of other BIOS chips in some other computer components like SCSI and graphics cards, checking and management of computer peripherals through low level routines during the start-up process, and management of clock, hard drive and other settings.
BIOS Sequence
The usual sequence of the BIOS program during start up begins with checking the CMOS setup for any customized settings, loading the device drivers and interrupt handlers of various computer hardware, initializing power management and registers, performing the self test for power, displaying the system settings, determining the bootable devices in the computer, and initiating the boot sequence.
Changing Settings through CMOS
To change the settings in a CMOS setup, a certain key or a certain combination of keys must be pressed during the initial start up sequence. The instructions for this can usually be found at the bottom of the first screen display during the start up process. Upon entering the CMOS set up, several options are available to the user. Setting the system date and time as well as changing the boot sequence, plug and play settings, driver configurations, memory settings, password settings, and power settings are just some of the settings that can be changed on this page.
Updating BIOS
BIOS, especially on older computers, can be updated from time to time. This is so the BIOS program can recognize new devices that have just been recently manufactured. To upgrade or change a computer's BIOS, a special program from the BIOS manufacturer is needed. The BIOS update used must match the original BIOS variant.
The update is done by checking BIOS revision and date information provided on the screen during start up and comparing this with the update list in the BIOS manufacturer's website. The upgrade usually comes with a utility program but sometimes the update can be downloaded separately. This utility program and update must be copied into a floppy disk and inserted into the disk drive the next time your computer boots. This will erase the old BIOS program and install the new one.

Common manufacturers

American Megatrends

Insyde Software

Phoenix Technologies

Byosoft
POST
The computer POST (Power On Self Test) tests the computer, insuring that it meets the necessary system requirements and that all hardware is working properly before starting the remainder of the boot process. If the computer passes the POST the computer will have a single beep (with some computer BIOS manufacturers it may beep twice) as the computer starts and the computer will continue to start normally. However, if the computer fails the POST, the computer will either not beep at all or will generate a beep code, which tells the user the source of the problem.
The steps of a POST
Each time the computer boots up the computer must past the POST. The step by step procedure that a POST performs each time your computer starts is given below.
Test the power supply to ensure that it is turned on and that it releases its reset signal.
CPU must exit the reset status mode and thereafter be able to execute instructions.
BIOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.
CMOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.
CPU must be able to read all forms of memory such as the memory controller, memory bus, and memory module.
The first 64KB of memory must be operational and have the capability to be read and written to and from, and capable of containing the POST code.
I/O bus / controller must be accessible.
I/O bus must be able to write / read from the video subsystem and be able to read all video RAM.
If the computer does not pass any of the above tests, your computer will receive an irregular POST. An irregular POST is a beep code that is different from the standard one or two beeps. This could be either no beeps at all or a combination of different beeps indicating that the computer failed in testing POST.
BIOS SETUP
Once you have entered setup, you will see a set of text screens with a number of options. Some of these are standard, while others vary according to the BIOS manufacturer. Common options include:
System Time/Date - Set the system time and date
Boot Sequence - The order that BIOS will try to load the operating system
Plug and Play - A standard for auto-detecting connected devices; should be set to "Yes" if your computer and operating system both support it
Mouse/Keyboard - "Enable Num Lock," "Enable the Keyboard," "Auto-Detect Mouse"...
Drive Configuration - Configure hard drives, CD-ROM and floppy drives
Memory - Direct the BIOS to shadow to a specific memory address
Security - Set a password for accessing the computer
Power Management - Select whether to use power management, as well as set the amount of time for standby and suspend
Exit - Save your changes, discard your changes or restore default settings

AMI BIOS beep codes
Beep Code Descriptions

1 short DRAM refresh failure
2 short Parity circuit failure
3 short Base 64K RAM failure
4 short System timer failure
5 short Process failure
6 short Keyboard controller Gate A20 error
7 short Virtual mode exception error
1 long, 3 short Conventional/Extended memory failure

AWARD BIOS beep codes
Beep Code Description
1 long, 2 short :-Indicates a video error has occurred and BIOS initialize the video screen to display additional information
Any other beep(s):- RAM problem.

IBM BIOS beep codes
Beep Code Description

No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.
2 Short Beep POST error, review screen for error code.
Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
One Long and one Short Beep Motherboard issue.
One Long and Two Short Beeps Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.
One Long and Three Short Beeps Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.
Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.
One Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.

The BIOS uses CMOS technology to save any changes made to the computer's settings. With this technology, a small lithium or Ni-Cad battery can supply enough power to keep the data for years. In fact, some of the newer chips have a 10-year, tiny lithium battery built right into the CMOS chip.

BIOS Troubleshooting
Because the BIOS is the essential "glue" that joins hardware to the operating system, you need to know how to deal with errors. Follow these steps to solve BIOS problems.
Incorrect CMOS Configuration
If the system can't start after a BIOS upgrade or a battery replacement, the CMOS might be corrupted. Re-enter the correct settings, save changes, and restart. An onscreen error message will usually indicate a CMOS problem. Otherwise, the settings might have been adjusted by a user. Try using the BIOS Setup auto-configure options, double-check drive configurations, save changes, and restart.
Incorrect Flash BIOS or Failed Update
If you use the wrong flash BIOS file to update your BIOS, or if the update process doesn't finish, your system can't start. You might need to contact the system or motherboard maker for service. Some BIOSes contain a "mini-BIOS" that can be reinstalled from a reserved part of the chip. Systems with this feature have a jumper on the motherboard called the "flash recovery" jumper. Micro Firmware's Web site lists popular motherboards using Phoenix BIOSes that have this feature.
To use this feature, download the correct flash BIOS, make the floppy disk, and take it to the computer with the defective BIOS. Set the jumper to Recovery, insert the floppy disk, and rerun the setup process. Listen for beeps and watch for the drive light to run during this process, because the video won't work. Turn off the computer, reset the jumper to Normal, and restart the computer.
If the update can't be installed, your motherboard might have a jumper that writes-protects the flash BIOS. Check the manual to see if your system has this feature. To update BIOS on a system with a write protected jumper, you must
1Disable the write-protection.
2.Perform the update.
3.Re-enable the write-protection to keep unauthorized people from changing the BIOS.
Summary
The BIOS contains a POST (power on self test) routine that tests memory, video, hard drives, floppy disk drives, and other important system components.
The BIOS also contains a bootstrap program that locates the operating system after the POST and transfers control to it.
The BIOS uses three methods to report errors: beep codes, onscreen error messages, and BIOS POST codes.
The BIOS contains tables of supported devices and options; the CMOS chip is used to store the options chosen with the BIOS setup program.
The CMOS chip is battery-backed.
You must verify correct floppy disk drive and hard drive configurations before a system can be started. These settings are found in the standard CMOS setup screen.
By making adjustments to other BIOS screens, you can adjust the performance of the system, configure the system for compatibility with Windows PnP-compatible boards, adjust or disable built-in ports, and control power management.
A BIOS needs to be upgraded when you want to use new hardware, new software, or new features not included in the current BIOS.
BIOS upgrades can be performed with software (flash BIOS) or by replacing the chip.

DELL INSPIRON 14LAPTOP

DELL™ INSPIRON 14LAPTOP

• Intel® Pentium® Processor T4300
• Genuine Windows® 7 Home Basic
• 2GB DDR2 SDRAM
• 250GB* SATA Hard Drive
• 14.0" (35.5cms) HD (1366x768)
LED Display with TrueLife™

Rs.30,400**

DELL LATEST MODEL LAPTOP

DELL™ STUDIO 15LAPTOP

• Intel® Core™2 Duo Processor T6600
• Genuine Windows® 7 Home Premium
• 3GB DDR2 SDRAM
• 320GB* SATA Hard Drive
• 512MB ATI Mobility Radeon™ HD
4570 Graphic card
• 15.6” (39.6cm) 720p WLED (1366x768) Display with TrueLife™ DELL™ STUDIO 15LAPTOP

Rs.43,400**

KEYBOARD TROUBLESHOOTING

Keyboard Is Dirty
Keyboards should be cleaned with "spray-n-wipe" cleaner and a cloth or tissue on a monthly basis. Ensure that computer is not powered up while cleaning the keyboard. Compressed air can also be used to clean between the keyboard keys. Another tip: clean the keys with a cotton swab dipped in alcohol.
Keyboard Not Found" Message
Your keyboard is not plugged into the computer securely. Unplug it and plug it back in and the problem should go away. If this doesn't work, follow procedure: “Computer isn't taking inputs from keyboard” (below).
Key Is Stuck
If a key does not work or is stuck in the down position, you may try to remove it with a CPU "chip puller" tool. These simple "L" shaped tools are great at pulling out keys. Once you've pulled out the stuck key, you can try to stretch the spring to "reanimate" its action.
Computer Isn't Taking Inputs From Keyboard
1. Is keyboard connected to computer? Ensure that the keyboard is plugged into the keyboard jack and not into the mouse jack. If the keyboard was unplugged, plug it back in and reboot the computer.
2. If the keyboard still doesn't work on boot-up, power down the computer and try to borrow a friend’s known-good keyboard for troubleshooting. Plug the new keyboard up and boot up the computer. If the new keyboard works, the old keyboard is bad and needs to be replaced. 3. If the known-good keyboard doesn't work, check your BIOS to make sure it sees the keyboard. It should say, "installed." If the BIOS recognizes the keyboard, then you probably have a bad keyboard port.

I Plugged Keyboard Into Mouse Port
1. Many mice and keyboards today use a PS/2 connector. If you plugged your keyboard into the mouse port (or vice versa), follow steps 2 and 3.
2. Shut down the computer and plug the keyboard into the keyboard port. The keyboard port is usually marked with a "keyboard" symbol. Plug the mouse into the mouse port (usually marked with a mouse symbol).
3. Reboot the computer; the keyboard should work now. If keyboard doesn't work, check your BIOS to make sure the BIOS recognizes the keyboard. You should see the words, "installed" or "enabled" under the keyboard.
4. If the BIOS recognizes the keyboard but it still doesn't work, you may have a bad keyboard port.
I Spilled a drink on my keyboard!
1. If you spill any liquid in the keyboard, turn it upside down ASAP. Drain all the water out of the keyboard, shaking it if necessary. If you've spilled water into the keyboard, just let it dry. You may use a hair dryer to dry out area under the keys (remember, too much heat and you could damage the electrical components).
2. If you've spilled a soda into the keyboard, completely rinse it in warm water. No soap please! You may use a hair dryer at this point or just let it dry for 2 days. Ensure the keyboard is perfectly DRY before you attempt to use it again. Don't plug a wet keyboard into electrical equipment. Think safety.
5. If the keyboard still doesn't work, replace the keyboard.
Only Types Capitals
USUALLY THIS IS CAUSED BY THE "CAPS LOCK" KEY BEING LEFT ON. PRESS "CAPS LOCK" KEY ONCE to fix this problem.
Page Up/Page Down Keys Are Locked
Your "Scroll Lock" function may be engaged. Press the Scroll Lock Key once.
Letters on Keyboard Don't Work
Check to see if there are any obstructions to the keys. If other keys work, then your keyboard is going bad and needs to be replaced.

If the keyboard does not respond at all:
1.Restart the computer, sometimes this will resolve the problem, as it may of froze up during the first boot up. Make sure nothing has spilled or fallen into the keyboard (between the keys).
2.Look behind the system (Computer Tower or Case) where the keyboard plugs in. Make sure the cable connector is fully seated into the keyboard connector. Also that if a PS/2 that it is not accidentally connected into the MOUSE port.
3.Shut the computer down. Physically remove the keyboard cable and visually check to make sure that no pins are bent or broken. If you have access to another keyboard try it, if it works then replace the keyboard.
If you are running windows:
Most times a Stuck Key will cause an error message. If any keyboard errors shows up on the screen look at your manual to correct the error/problem. This can also occur if you try to type while the computer is booting up. If you do try another keyboard and get the same type of error then try this using the mouse:
1.Try booting without the keyboard plugged in, or if the Windows boot screen comes up select SAFE MODE. Once you get into Windows check within Device Manager and see if there is a Yellow or Red mark next to the Key Board entry, which means there is a problem. Highlight that entry and remove it. Reboot and Windows will re-configure the keyboard.
2.If Windows did not fix your keyboard it is possible that the keyboard port itself is bad this may prove true if a second keyboard does not work. Rarely, but sometimes if a keyboard over-heats an error message will appear on the monitor. Normally only Stuck Keys will generate an error message on the monitor.

TABLET PC

In some applications, a keyboard is either unnecessary or a hindrance. For that reason, manufacturers have repeatedly offered tablet-style computers. These systems are like laptops without the keyboard. The top panel of the device consists solely of a large LCD panel. Except for a few buttons accompanying the screen, all input is accomplished via a stylus on a touch-sensitive panel that covers the tablet's screen.
A number of tablet systems appeared on the market with much fanfare in the early 1990s, but none of them caught on with the public. Nevertheless, a handful of companies, such as Fujitsu, have continued to quietly offer tablets in the intervening years.
In the fall of 2002, Microsoft launched a new initiative for tablets with a special version of its Windows operating system, dubbed Microsoft Windows XP Tablet PC Edition. This operating system differs from the regular version of Windows XP in that it enables users to manipulate the Windows interface with a stylus and to enter text using handwriting. Microsoft claimed that these new tablets would offer enhanced usability and would be better able to read the user's handwriting than previous attempts. Several companies, such as Acer, HP, and Gateway, are offering tablets that can use this operating system. Most of these devices are really hybrid notebook/tablets. The basic design looks like a notebook, except that the screen can be rotated and closed down on the keyboard, thus hiding it during tablet use.
A typical tablet is represented by the ThinkPad X-Series Tablet. At first the system looks like a small, 4-pound ultralight laptop with a 12.1-inch color display. Inside is a special low-voltage version of the Pentium M processor complemented with 512MB1.5GB of DDR2 SDRAM and a 4060GB hard drive. The main difference between this system and a standard laptop is that this system includes a touch-sensitive display that can be twisted around and then folded back to cover the keyboard, at which time the included stylus can be used for input. The starting price is about $1,900.
Most Tablet PCs have the advantage that they can be used either as a tablet or an ultralight notebook. Other systems are permanently in tablet form, these are sometimes called slates. Despite having been on the market for a couple of years now, it is still too early to say how successful these devices will be. Their prices generally fall into the range of $1,000$3,000, and they compete primarily with the thin & light laptops for market share.

ADVANTAGES OF LAPTOPS

Advantages of Laptops
If you are reading this book, you are probably already aware of at least some of the benefits of using a portable computer. Here is a list that possibly includes some benefits you had not considered before.
Multiple Uses
By their nature, portable computers are generally much more useful than desktops. Except for a mere handful of exceptions, portables can do anything that a desktop can, plus a range of other tasks that would be impossible for desktops.
The chief strength of the portable is its freedom from the desk. It can be used almost anywhere. Indeed, almost anywhere a human can go, so can a laptop.
Some uses for a laptop would not even make sense for a desktop. For example, an increasing number of notebook computers are being equipped with GPS antennas and mapping software. The same could be done with desktops, of course, but with much less interesting if not impractical results.
Ideal for People with Multiple Workplaces
For many people, the idea of working in a single workplace is no longer practical. Many workers have to travel as part of their job, whether across the country or around a metropolitan region. Even those workers who never travel may find it advantageous to bring work home, or to work while commuting. For all these workers, the notebook computer is ideal.
Instead of going through the expense of purchasing a desktop computer for each workplace, you can buy a single notebook. The notebook can be carried with you, from one workplace to another. If its battery is charged up, it can even be used while en route from one workplace to the other.
Flat-Panel Displays
Flat LCD panels were used in laptop systems long before they became popular for desktop systems. Laptops actually drove the development of LCDs, and desktop users (and television fans for that matter) can now enjoy the same benefits of these displays that laptop users have had many years earlier.
There are three main benefits of LCD flat-panel displays as compared to CRTs. The first is, of course, its flatness. Unlike most CRT screens, it does not bow out slightly in the middle. Instead, it is perfectly flat, just as a piece of paper. Many new CRT displays are emulating this flat-screen look to a remarkable degree. But even on these screens, the center of the display tends to bow out toward the user ever so slightly.
The second advantage is size. Actually, there are two benefits in this category. The first is plain truthfulness. The fact is that a 15-inch CRT monitor does not actually measure 15 inches diagonally. The usable display space is only about 14 inches in size. By convention, CRT manufacturers for some reason measure not just the usable display space on these monitors but the entire front surface of the tube. By contrast, with LCD screens, the manufacturers have been more honest. As you might expect, a 15-inch screen actually measures 15 inches.
The viewable surface is, of course, only one aspect of a screen's size. There is also the thickness to consider. Here, LCDs have a huge advantage. The traditional CRT monitor may be as thick as it is tall. The end result is that these monitors take up an extraordinary amount of desk space. By contrast, an LCD screen may be only 2 inches thick or less. But a laptop does an even better job of saving space: On these systems the LCD screen is usually less than a half-inch thick.
The third advantage of flat-panel screens is their sharpness. If you look at a CRT screen under high magnification, you will see that each pixel has indistinct borders and is slightly blurry. Sometimes the pixels exhibit microscopic jittery motions. Under the same magnification on an LCD screen, however, you'll see pixels with distinctly sharp edges and no jittery motion at all.
Laptop LCDs have had one special advantage over many desktop LCD panels, and that is that the laptops have always used a direct digital interface. After using laptops for many years and enjoying the advantages of the crisp LCD panels they used, I was excited to see LCD panels become widely available for desktop systems as well. However after seeing some of the available LCDs, I was extremely disappointed in their performance. They were visibly not near as crisp and accurate as what I was used to on my laptops.
The problem was that many low-end LCD panels were designed to use the analog VGA connection. If you use an LCD panel with a desktop system, and connect that panel to the system via a 15-pin VGA connector, then you are missing out on a great deal of quality. This is because the video signal is first generated in the video card as a digital signal, then converted to analog and sent to the display, where it is finally converted back to digital before being shown on the screen. This double conversion results in slightly fuzzy characters, colors that are not precise, and other undesirable artifacts such as moiré patterns. The only way to avoid such problems is to eliminate the analog conversion and send the digital signal directly from the video card to the display, which is exactly how it has always been done in laptops.
While this is not an issue for laptops due to their all-digital design, if you want the same quality display performance on a desktop LCD then I recommend using only LCD panels and video cards that incorporate a DVI (Digital Visual Interface) connector instead of the analog VGA connector. By using DVI to connect a video card in a desktop system to an LCD panel, you avoid the analog conversion entirely, and have the same crisp and clean image on the display as on a laptop display.
Low-Energy Consumption
In these days of energy consciousness, laptops have a tremendous advantage over desktops. Even an Energy Starcompliant desktop system uses up a fairly large amount of electricity. People who leave their systems powered up most of the day would be surprised to find out how much this adds to their monthly electrical bill. Notebook computers do not generally comply with the government's Energy Star conservation initiative. The simple reason is that they do not need to; they already use comparatively little electricity.
Built-in UPS
Power failures can be real calamities for computer users. When power is cut off to a system, everything in memory disappears. If the system was writing something to a disk, the write process may have been only partially completed, leading to a corrupted disk. In some cases whole files may be lost; in the worst case, a whole disk. To avoid this danger, many computer users have gone to considerable expense to purchase an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). This is a battery-powered device that will keep a system powered for a few minutes after a power failure so that it can be shut down properly. The cost of a UPS may be several hundred dollars.
Notebook computers are already equipped with a very good uninterruptible power supply. It is called the notebook's battery, and it will last not just for a few minutes, but for a few hours. If you work in an area where the local power company is not reliable, a notebook computer is a must.
Integrated Design
Notebook computers have a highly integrated design. All components are assembled by the manufacturer and tested prior to sale. By contrast, in the case of some small desktop vendors, components may be thrown together without sufficient testing, leading to all sorts of headaches for the user.
More Space Efficient:-Even the largest notebook computers can be safely hidden inside a desk drawer. Indeed, some thin and light notebooks are so small that you might be able to stash several of these devices in a single drawer. On a small or cluttered desk, a notebook can easily find enough space for a home. In small offices, a notebook's ability to save space is highly appreciated. Ecologically oriented users will also be interested to know that at the end of the notebook's useful life, laptops are physically easier to recycle.

PORTABLE SYSTEM DESIGN ELEMENTS

Portable System Design Elements
Portable systems are designed to be smaller and lighter than desktops, and much of the development work that has been done on desktop components has certainly contributed to this end. Much of this development has been in simple miniaturization. For example, whereas 3.5-inch hard drives may be popular on desktops, most laptops would not have room for these devices. Instead, they normally use 2.5-inch hard drives, which are a direct result of the miniaturization that has occurred in hard-drive technology over the past few years. Some of the subnotebook and Tablet PC systems use even smaller 1.8-inch drives first made popular in portable music players.
In addition to miniaturization, however, advancements in three other areas have contributed greatly to the design of today's laptop computers: flat-panel displays, power systems, and thermal management.
Flat-Panel Displays
The sleek lines of flat-panel Liquid Crystal displays (LCDs) have caused them to be seen increasingly more often on desktops. It was not long ago, however, that these displays were almost exclusively in the domain of laptops.
A flat-panel display is one of the most visually apparent components of a laptop. They are also usually the component that has the greatest impact on the size, shape, and cost of a laptop. In the early days of portables, the only affordable portable display was the small CRT monitor, a device that was so power-hungry that it required AC power. These displays were also bulky, causing early portables to look like small suitcases. When gas-plasma displays became available, the size of portables diminished to that of a lunchbox or briefcase. Still, the power requirements of gas-plasma displays again mandated a nearby AC outlet. It was not until the development of large, low-power LCDs that the familiar clamshell-style, battery-powered laptop became a reality.
As the internal components of a laptop became increasingly small, the laptops gradually shrunk in size to the point where they were no larger than a paper notebook. Indeed, the category of notebook computers originally started out with a footprint no larger than 8.5x11 inches. In the past few years, however, as high-quality LCD screens became available in larger and larger sizes, the size of some notebooks also increased.
Low Power Consumption
Like the car that spends most of its time in a garage, or the pleasure boat that spends most of its time at the dock, portable computers spend most of their time in a decidedly non-mobile environmenton a desk connected to an AC power outlet. Take away a laptop's battery, however, and you have greatly diminished its value. In fact, one of the primary features of importance to a laptop buyer is the "battery life"the length of time the system can run on a single battery charge.
Environmental concerns are leading to the development of more efficient power-management technologies, but, obviously, operating a computer from a battery imposes system limitations that designers of desktop systems never had to consider before the advent of battery-powered portable systems. What's more, the demand for additional features, such as DVD and CD-RW drives, larger displays, and ever faster processors, has enormously increased the power drain on the typical system. The problem of conserving power and increasing the system's battery life is typically addressed in three ways:
· Low-power components Nearly all the components in today's portable systems, from CPUs to memory to displays and drives, are specifically designed to use less power than their desktop counterparts.
· Increased battery efficiency Newer battery technologies, such as lithium ion and lithium polymer, are enabling batteries and power supplies to be lighter and have greater capacities, allowing for longer battery life on a single charge.
· Power management Operating systems and utilities that turn off specific system components, such as disk drives, when they are not in use can greatly increase battery life.
Thermal Management
Perhaps a more serious problem than battery life in portable systems is heat. All electrical components generate heat, of course, and in the confines of a laptop this heat can be a significant problem. Inside a laptop, a large number of components are packed in a relatively small space, creating an extremely high concentration of thermal energy. This energy must somehow be dissipated. In most desktop systems, this is accomplished by using fans that continuously ventilate the empty spaces inside the system. Because fans use up battery power, however, portable systems must be designed to run fan-free most of the time and therefore employ innovative systems for moving and dissipating heat.
The worst culprit, as far as heat is concerned, is the system processor. When they were first released, the amount of heat generated by Intel's 486 and Pentium processors became a problem even in desktop systems. Newer and faster processors consume more and more power. It became clear to processor manufacturers such as Intel and AMD that special processor designs would be necessary to reduce power consumption and thermal output in mobile systems. Modern mobile processors benefit from technology featuring lower voltages, smaller die sizes, larger integrated caches, and, in general, lower power consumption than their predecessors.
Because many portable systems are now being designed as replacements for desktops, they require the most powerful processors available. Even the newest and fastest processors designed for desktop systems are often adapted for use in mobile systems. Even with dedicated designs for mobile systems, these high-speed processors can generate surprisingly large quantities of heat.
To address this problem, Intel and AMD have created special methods for packaging mobile processors that are designed to keep heat output to a minimum. Mobile processors also reduce heat through the use of extra-low-voltage designs (multiple voltages in recent designs) and by integrating both the Level 1 and Level 2 memory cache directly on the processor die. These techniques, by the way, not only reduce heat but also lower power demands and thus increase battery endurance.
However, even the best mobile processor designs will still result in a substantial quantity of heat being generated in a small space. Usually this heat is more concentrated than that inside a desktop. To cope with this problem, many notebook components are designed not only to require little space and power but also to be able to withstand high temperatures.

NTFS and FAT32

Difference between NTFS and FAT32
NTFS
1) Allows access local to w2k w2k3 XP win NT4 with SP4 & later may get access for some file.
2) Maximum size of partition is 2 Terabytes & more.
3) Maximum File size is up to 16TB.
4) File & folder Encryption is possible only in NTFS.
FAT 32
1) Fat 32 Allows access to WIN 95,WIN 98 win millennium win2k Win XP on local partition.
2) Maximum size of partition is up to 2 TB.
3) Maximum File size is up to 4 GB.
4) File & folder Encryption is not possible.

Differences between NTFS and FAT32

NTFS stands for new technology file system or network technology file system. In NTSF partition size can be of 2 TB or more. and file size can be 16 TB. File/folder encryption is done. and it supports file name character up to 255.FAT32 stands for File allocation table. in FAT32 partition size can be Up to 2 TB. and file size can be 4 GB. File/folder encryption is not possible in FAT32. and it supports file name character up to 8.3.

What are the differences between NTFS and FAT32?

If you are using multiple OS’s on the same computer (Windows XP and Windows 9x) and you want the two OS’s to read the drive, FAT32 is the only way to go. But, if you are planning on only using Windows XP, NTFS is the way to go. There are several reasons why NTFS is the way to go. One of the highlights of NTFS is the protection that it provides for files. To ensure reliability of NTFS, three major areas were addressed: recoverability, removal of fatal single sector failures, and hot fixing. NTFS is a recoverable file system because it keeps track of transactions against the file system. When a CHKDSK is performed on FAT or HPFS, the consistency of pointers within the directory, allocation, and file tables is being checked. Under NTFS, a log of transactions against these components is maintained so that CHKDSK need only roll back transactions to the last commit point in order to recover consistency within the file system. Under FAT or HPFS, if a sector that is the location of one of the file system's special objects fails, then a single sector failure will occur. NTFS avoids this in two ways: first, by not using special objects on the disk and tracking and protecting all objects that are on the disk. Secondly, under NTFS, multiple copies (the number depends on the volume size) of the Master File Table are kept.
In NTFS file systems the security is high compare to fat 32. In NTFS the max drive size is 2 TB. In fat 32 the max drive size is 32 GB

PORTABLE COMPUTER

Defining the Portable Computer
Portables, like their desktop counterparts, have evolved a great deal since the days when the word portable could refer to a desktop-sized system with a handle on it. Today, much smaller portable systems can rival the performance of their desktop counterparts in nearly every way. Many portables are now being marketed as "desktop replacements," which are portable systems powerful enough to serve as a primary system. This chapter examines the phenomenon of portable computing, showing how it has evolved and why it is so popular.
Portables started out as suitcase-sized systems that differed from desktops mainly in that all the components, including a CRT-style monitor, were installed into a single case. In the early 1980s, a small Houston-based startup company named Compaq was among the first to market portable PCs such as these. Although their size, weight, and appearance are almost laughable when compared to today's laptop or notebook systems, they were cutting-edge technology for the time. In fact, unlike modern laptops, the components used by these bulky first generation portables were virtually identical to those used in the most powerful desktops of the day.
Most current portable systems are now approximately the size of the paper-based notebook they are often named for and are built using the clamshell design that has become an industry standard. Inside these systems, nearly every component has been developed specifically for use in mobile systems.
Portable PCs, however, are not the same as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), such as the Palm series, Handspring, and PocketPC. Portable computers differ from PDAs in that they use the same operating systems and application software as desktop computers and use memory, CPU, and drive technologies that are similar to desktop PCs as well. PDAs, on the other hand, use different operating systems, applications, and hardware compared to either desktop or portable PCs and thus fall outside the scope of this book. Instead, this book focuses primarily on laptops or notebook-style portable PCs. That said, in terms of technology, much of this book will also be applicable to a relatively new category of portables: Tablet PCs. Actually Tablet PCs have been around since the early '90s, but a lack of standardized software, combined with relatively low power and functionality, limited them to special applications rather than mainstream use. In many respects, modern Tablet PCs are identical to laptop/notebook computers except that they are equipped with a touch-sensitive display, lack the integrated removable storage (such as a CD/DVD-ROM drive), and include a special tablet-oriented version of Windows. While most include a keyboard and basically look like a standard notebook computer, a few Tablet PCs do not come with a keyboard at all. Those that don't include a keyboard generally offer one as an accessory or can use any standard external keyboard if desired.
Many people use portable systems as an adjunct or accessory to a primary desktop system in their principal working location. In those cases, the portable system may not need to have all the power of a desktop, since it will only be used when away from the main office. In my situation, the roles are reversed. All my professional life I have been teaching PC hardware and software, usually on the road. As such I have always needed a powerful computer I can take with me, and because the amount of time spent traveling is equal to or more than the amount of time spent at a home office, I have had to rely on portable PCs of one type or another as my primary system.
All my books on upgrading and repairing PCs, starting with my first self-published seminar workbooks in 1985, have been written on a portable system of one type or another. With the processing power of modern laptop/notebook systems evolving to the point where they are nearly equal to all but the most powerful desktop systems, I look forward to carrying even smaller, lighter, and more powerful laptops in the future.
Portable computers have settled into a number of distinct roles that now determine the size and capabilities of the systems available. Traveling users have specific requirements of portable computers, and the added weight and expense incurred by additional features make it less likely for a user to carry a system more powerful than is necessary. Others may not do much traveling, but simply like the flexibility and small footprint that a laptop provides.

LAPTOPS OR NOTEBOOKS

The terms laptop and notebook before even beginning work on this book, not only with how to use them in the content but especially with the title. Although it was not necessarily true in the beginning, in the current context of the industry, these terms are used interchangeably to describe systems. The truth is, there is no consistent industry-wide definition of what is a laptop computer and what is a notebook computer.
Originally, there was some unofficial size differentiation between what was considered a laptop versus what was considered a notebook (the term notebook was used to describe an arbitrarily smaller version of a laptop). However, more recently that distinction has completely disappeared. Standardization on screen technology, screen sizes, as well as keyboard/pointing device layout and size have all served to muddy and eventually dissolve any differences between what was once considered a laptop and what was considered a notebook. The fact that virtually all modern portables include 13-inch (diagonal) or larger screens (which is why innovations such as the ThinkPad 701 "butterfly" collapsible keyboard aren't used anymore) as well as industry-standard keyboard layouts, integrating a pointing device and palm rest, has served to greatly equalize the sizes of such systems. There are still differences in weight and thickness between various makes and models, but in general, modern laptop/notebook systems, from the least to the most powerful and expensive, come in very similar sizes.
So what do we call these systems now? Are they laptops or notebooks? Virtually all manufacturers now use the term notebook to describe all their portable systems, from huge desktop replacements down to ultra-slim or ultra-light models. Unfortunately, outside the advertising and marketing world, few people seem to use the term notebook. Perhaps that is because if you just say "notebook," it seems too generic and could refer to something other than a computer, and thus be easily misunderstood. You almost have to say "notebook computer" for it to become clear what you mean. On the other hand, if you say "laptop," most people immediately know that you mean "laptop computer," because the term is much more widely recognized.
I conducted some informal polls of my own. In the most telling of these, I showed people a picture of a modern portable computer system and asked them, "What do you call this type of computer?" Virtually everybody replied, "A laptop!" In other cases, I asked people what the word notebook means, and I received a variety of answers, not all having to do with computers. Then I asked them what the word laptop means, and almost everybody understood it as a type of portable computer. Maybe I've just been around too long, but I think you'll find as I did that laptop is simply a much more recognizable and familiar term than notebook, whether you actually ever use one on your lap or not.
So, in spite of the industry marketing preferences for the word notebook, and even though laptop computers and notebook computers are the same thing, I decided not to call this book Upgrading and Repairing Notebooks (it even sounds weird), but instead decided to use the more understandable and recognizable Upgrading and Repairing Laptops title instead.
Throughout this book, you'll find that just as is done in the industry, I use the terms interchangeably (that is, I say "laptop" or "notebook," or both), and in almost all cases they mean exactly the same thing.